In a personal letter we can touch on many subjects just like we do during casual conversations. We may also discuss these subjects in any order we like. Note that the use of colloquial expressions which would be totally out of place in a formal letter is also permissible in personal letters. But this does not mean that personal letters should be written in a careless and slovenly manner. In fact, it must be remembered that however friendly your tone may be, we are all bound by the rules of spelling, grammar and punctuation. Note that grammatical and spelling errors will instantly get you stamped as uneducated.

Forms of address

In friendly letters to friends and relatives, the proper form of address is the name (without title) of the person to whom you are writing. You may prefix the name by such qualifying terms as Dear, My Dear, Dearest etc.

Examples are:

My dear Mummy

Dear Charles

Dearest sister

The forms of subscription are varied. In letters to close friends and relatives you may write: ‘Yours affectionately’, ‘Your affectionate son/daughter/sister/brother’, ‘Your loving son/friend’ etc. In informal letters written to your superiors or teachers, you may use subscriptions such as ‘Sincerely’ or ‘Truly’.

Before the subscription some people use expressions such as ‘regards’, ‘kind regards’ or ‘with best wishes’.

Not that ‘sincerely’ should not be used in letters which begin with the formal Dear Sir, after which the proper form of subscription is ‘faithfully’ or ‘truly’.

The beginning of a paragraph should mark a change in topic, or a step in the development of a plot. Learning to know how to divide an essay into neat paragraphs is an essential skill an ESL student should master. Unless divided into paragraphs, your essay would look uninteresting to the reader.

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a single point. Note that paragraphs are not mere arbitrary division of text. Each paragraph should deal with a central topic or develop a single idea.

The length of a paragraph

There is no rule as to what the length of a paragraph should be. A paragraph may be long or short. It may consist of a single sentence or a number of sentences. Note that the paragraphs of a piece of prose are different from the stanzas of a poem. While the stanzas of a poem are usually of the same length and pattern, paragraphs may be long or short.

Unity of thought

Discuss only one topic in each paragraph. Every sentence in the paragraph must be closely connected with the central idea of the paragraph. As far as possible, try to express the topic or subject of the paragraph in the first sentence itself. Narrate events in the order of their occurrence. Also make sure that every sentence is connected with the leading idea and arranged in the order of their importance.

The two most important sentences in a paragraph are the first and the last. The first sentence should arouse the interest of the reader and the last sentence should satisfy it.

Variety

To avoid monotony and to make the text look interesting, the paragraphs should be of different lengths. They must also not be of the same grammatical construction.

1.    Possibly she isn’t John’s sister.
2.    Perhaps we will go on a pilgrimage next month.
3.    She was able to read when she was two.
4.    It is not necessary for you to pay the bill.
5.    I am certain that they have already left.
6.    I was in the habit of going for a walk every morning when I was in Singapore.
7.    It is probable that he will pass his driving test easily.
8.    Perhaps he forgot to bring the book.
9.    Nobody answered the phone; perhaps they have gone out.
10.    I am certain that he is over sixty.
11.    It was not necessary for them to buy a new car but they bought it.
12.    It was not necessary for them to buy a new car and they didn’t buy it.

Answers

1.    She may not be John’s sister.
2.    We may go on a pilgrimage next month.
3.    She could read when she was just two.
4.    You need not pay the bill.
5.    They must have already left.
6.    I used to go for a walk every morning when I was in Singapore.
7.    He may pass his driving test easily.
8.    He may/ might have forgotten to bring the book.
9.    Nobody answered the phone; they must have gone out.
10.    He must be over sixty.
11.    They need not have bought a new car.
12.    They didn’t need to buy a new car.

1.    They elected him Chairman.
2.    The children laughed at the beggar.
3.    The guard caught the thief.
4.    The soldiers attacked the enemy barracks.
5.    The cat drank all the milk.
6.    The old man takes snuff.
7.    Somebody hit the dog with a stick.
8.    I will order the carriage.
9.    One may accomplish anything with a little effort.
10.    A thunderstorm often turns milk sour.
11.    The boy was climbing the cliff.
12.    Will you ever forget those happy days?
13.    All desire wealth and some acquire it.
14.    They laughed at his warnings.
15.    He made the child drink the milk.

Answers

1.    He was elected chairman (by them).
2.    The beggar was laughed at by the children.
3.    The thief was caught by the guard.
4.    The enemy barracks were attacked by the soldiers.
5.    All the milk was drunk by the cat.
6.    Snuff is taken by the old man.
7.    The dog was hit with a stick (by somebody).
8.    The carriage will be ordered (by me).
9.    With a little effort anything can be accomplished.
10.    Milk is often turned sour by a thunderstorm.
11.    The cliff was being climbed by the boy.
12.    Will those happy days ever be forgotten (by you)?
13.    Wealth is desired by all and acquired by some.
14.    His warnings were laughed at.
15.    The child was made to drink the milk.
Notes:
Note that the subject of the active verb is not always mentioned in the passive voice.

1.    Prevention is ——————- than cure.

a)    Good
b)    Better
c)    Best

2.    Who is the ——————— cricketer in the world?

a)    Good
b)    Best
c)    Better

3.    The pen is ——————– than the sword.

a)    Mighty
b)    Mightier
c)    Mightiest

4.    The Pacific is ——————- than any other ocean.

a)    Large
b)    Larger
c)    Largest

5.    Which of the two girls is the ——————?

a)    Pretty
b)    Prettier
c)    Prettiest

6.    Honor is ——————– to him than life.

a)    Dear
b)    Dearer
c)    Dearest

7.    Who is the ——————– boy in the class?

a)    Tall
b)    Taller
c)    Tallest

8.    The Eifel Tower is —————— than the Taj Mahal.

a)    Tall
b)    Taller
c)    Tallest

9.    Wordsworth is a —————— poet than Cowper.

a)    Great
b)    Greater
c)    Greatest

10.    The piano was sold to the ——————— bidder.

a)    High
b)    Highest
c)    Higher

11.    Mount Everest is the ————— peak of the Himalayas.

a)    Tall
b)    Tallest
c)    taller

12.    She writes the ——————– hand in the class.

a)    Good
b)    Best
c)    Better

13.    He is one of the —————— eminent speakers of our times.

a)    Most
b)    More
c)    Much

14.    Shakespeare is ——————— than any other poet.

a)    Great
b)    Greater
c)    Greatest

15.    Clouds float in the sky because they are ——————- than the air.

a)    Light
b)    Lighter
c)    Lightest

Answers

1.    Better
2.    Best
3.    Mightier
4.    Larger
5.    Prettiest
6.    Dearer
7.    Tallest
8.    Taller
9.    Greater
10.    Highest
11.    Tallest
12.    Best
13.    Most
14.    Greater
15.    Lighter

The relative pronoun is usually omitted when it is in the accusative case.

Few and short were the prayers (that) we said.
I am the monarch of all (that) I survey.

The tendency to omit the accusative relative is common in spoken English. In written English it is considered inappropriate.

The omission of the relative pronoun in the nominative case is unusual except in colloquial English.

There is somebody on the phone who wants to talk with you. (NOT There is somebody on the phone wants to talk with you.)

Omission of the antecedent

In older English the antecedent of a relative pronoun was sometimes left out.

Who laughs last laugh best. (= He who laughs last laughs best.)
Whom the Gods love die young. (= Those whom the Gods love die young.)
Who works not shall not eat. (= He who works not shall not eat.)

Position of the relative pronoun
To avoid confusion, the relative pronoun and its clause should be placed as near as possible to its antecedent (the noun or pronoun to which it refers back).
Compare:

The boy who won the scholarship is the son of my brother Charles. (The boy won the scholarship.)
The boy is the son of my brother Charles who won the scholarship. (Charles won the scholarship.)

Compound relative pronouns
Pronouns which are formed by adding ever, so, or soever to who, which and what are called compound relative pronouns. Examples are: whoever, whichever, whatever, whosoever, whatsoever etc.
Note that compound relative pronouns usually have no expressed antecedent.

Whoever diggeth a pit shall fall therein.
Whoever comes is welcome. (= Any person who comes is welcome.)
Take whichever you like.
Whatever he does, he does well.

The term correlative refers to a pair of items which work together to connect things in a sentence. Examples are: both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor and so…that.

She is both beautiful and intelligent.
The box was so heavy that I couldn’t lift it.

Countable noun

A noun which denotes something which can be counted. Examples are: dog, cat, boy, girl, bag, shoes etc. Countable nouns can be used with numbers and the indefinite article a/an.

He has two children.
I ate an apple.

Cranberry morpheme

The label cranberry morpheme refers to a morpheme which occurs in only a single word. Examples are the cran of cranberry and the twi or twilight.

Dangling participle or hanging participle

Any participle which is not grammatically linked to the rest of its sentence is called a dangling participle or hanging participle. For example in the sentence, ‘Driving down the road, a dog leapt out in front of me’, the participle phrase ‘driving down the road’ is hanging because it is not grammatically linked to the rest of the sentence. Instead, this sentence should be rewritten as ‘While I was driving down the road, a dog leapt out in front of me’.

Hanging participles are common in speech, but they are inappropriate in writing.

Degree

The label degree denotes the grammatical category which expresses the degree to which some quality is present. English adjectives and adverbs commonly distinguish three degrees: the positive, the comparative and the superlative. The comparative is formed with –er or more. The superlative is formed with –est or most. Note that short words such as tall and short form their comparative and superlative by the addition of –er and –est. Longer words form their comparative and superlative by the addition of –more or –most.

Degree modifier

A degree modifier is a word which modifies an adjective or adverb and expresses the degree to which some quality is present. Examples are: very, rather, too, moderately, quite etc.

For example in the sentence, ‘The coat is very expensive’, the degree modifier very indicates some degree of expensiveness. Similarly in the sentence, ‘It is too cold’, the degree modifier too expresses some degree of coldness.

A concessive clause is an adverbial clause which expresses the sense of although. The first clauses in the following sentences are examples of concessive clauses.
Although he was not feeling well, he kept working.
Although she is qualified, Susie didn’t get the job.

Concrete noun

A concrete noun is a noun which denotes something which is physical and can be touched. Examples are: tree, cow, rubber, steel, grass etc.

Conditional sentence

Any sentence of the form if … then is a conditional sentence. Some conditional sentences express a realistic possibility. Example: If I get a raise, I will buy a car.

In some conditional sentences, the condition is seen as contrary to fact. Example: If I spoke English, I could get a better job.

In a conditional sentence, the clause with if is called antecedent, while the other clause is called consequent.

Conjugation

By conjugation we mean the process of changing the form of a verb for grammatical purposes. For example, the English verb write may appear as any of write, writes, wrote, written and writing depending upon its grammatical position.

Conjunct

The label conjunct applies to an adverbial which connects its sentence to neighboring sentences. Examples are: moreover, in addition, nevertheless, however etc.

Conjunction

The part of speech which combines two words, clauses or phrases together. Examples are: and, or, but, yet etc.

Coordinate structure

Any grammatical structure in which two or more grammatical units are joined with a coordinating conjunction like and, or or but.

Copula

A special verb which connects two parts of a sentence and expresses that the two parts denote the same thing or that the first part has the property denoted by the second. The English copula is the verb be (is, am, are, was and were). For example in the sentence ‘Alice is my friend’, the copula be (is) connects Alice and my friend and state that both nouns denote the same person.

Colon
The colon (:) is a punctuation mark that is almost always used after a complete sentence. A colon indicates that what follows is an explanation of what precedes. Note that a colon is not preceded by a white space, and it is not followed by a hyphen.

Common gender
A label which can denote people of either sex. Examples are: teacher, child, doctor and student.

Common noun
A noun which denotes a class of things. Examples are: dog, boy, student, man, kite etc.

Comparative
The term comparative refers to that form of an adjective or adverb which is constructed with either –er or more. The comparative form of an adjective or adverb expresses a higher degree of the quality denoted by the positive (base) form.
Examples are: taller, stronger, sharper, more beautiful, more careful etc.
Note that English also has a comparative of inferiority. This form is constructed with less. Example: less interesting

Comparative clause

A clause attached to a comparative adjective or adverb.
Examples are given below:

Alice is taller than I am. (Here the group of words ‘than I am’ is a comparative clause attached to the comparative taller.)

Complex sentence
A sentence which contains at least one subordinate clause. In the following examples subordinate clauses are given in bold text.
Alice said that she was not coming.

Compound
The grammar term compound denotes a word constructed by combining two or more words. Note that in many cases the meaning of a compound is not predictable from the meanings of its component parts.

Compound sentence
A sentence which contains two or more main clauses but no subordinate clauses is called a compound sentence. Note that the clauses in a compound sentence are usually connected by conjunctions such as and, or or yet.

1.    A little child cannot distinguish good ——————– evil.

a)    Between
b)    By
c)    For
d)    From

2.    Death does not distinguish —————— the rich and the poor.

a)    Between
b)    From
c)    By
d)    For

3.    Dr Richards is distinguished ———————— his selfless service to humanity.

a)    From
b)    For
c)    Between
d)    From

4.    On account of his advanced age he was disqualified ——————— competing.

a)    From
b)    For
c)    To
d)    With

5.    He was discharged because there was no proof ——————– him.

a)    On
b)    Against
c)    Of
d)    From

6.    Brass consists ——————– copper and zinc.

a)    In
b)    Of
c)    On
d)    Off

7.    His parents are very worried ———————- his safety.

a)    At
b)    About
c)    For
d)    In

8.    He parted ——————- his family and belongings and went on a pilgrimage.

a)    At
b)    With
c)    In
d)    After

9.    I am convinced that he is acting ——————— compulsion.

a)    Upon
b)    Under
c)    From
d)    With

10.    The patient is now free ———————- danger.

a)    From
b)    With
c)    Of
d)    On

11.    This peculiar custom prevails ———————- the Hindus.

a)    Between
b)    Among
c)    In
d)    On

12.    She was angry ——————— him ——————– lying to her.

a)    With, for
b)    For, with
c)    In, for
d)    For, on

13.    We should provide ———————- damage by fire and natural calamities by insuring our goods.

a)    Against
b)    for
c)    with
d)    on

14.    Many Hindi plays are adapted ——————– English.

a)    For
b)    To
c)    From
d)    With

15.    The police is entrusted ———————- the enforcement of law and order.

a)    With
b)    To
c)    From
d)    For

Answers

1.    From
2.    Between
3.    For
4.    From
5.    Against
6.    Of
7.    About
8.    With
9.    Under
10.    From
11.    Among
12.    With, for
13.    Against
14.    From
15.    with