Talking about people
We can name people in four ways.

Using the first name
This is very informal. To talk about our relatives, close friends and children, we usually use the first name.

Where is Peter?
Jane phoned in the morning.
Did you know? Jack is getting married.

Using first name + surname
This style is neither particularly formal nor particularly informal.

I like Brad Pitt the actor.
Mark Twain is my favorite writer.

Using title + surname
This style is more formal. It is used when we talk about people we don’t know, or when we want to show respect.

Could I meet Mr Lewis, please?
We have got a new music teacher called Mrs Sanders.

Note that we do not usually use title + first name + surname to talk about people.

Call Ms Sanders. (More common than ‘Call Ms Mary Sanders’)

Using only surname
This style is used when we are talking about public figures like politicians, writers, actors, sportsmen etc.

I think Shaw was one of the best dramatists of his time.
Have you read anything by Dickens?

1. Find out all the finite verbs in the sentence. Remember that there are as many clauses as there are finite verbs.
2. Find out the principal clause
3. Find out the subordinate clause or clauses
4. Determine what function each subordinate clause serves and identify it as a noun clause, adjective clause or adverb clause.
5. Show how each subordinate clause is related to the principal clause.
6. Analyze the principal clause and subordinate clauses separately.

Study the following examples carefully.

I warned him that he would be dismissed.

The sentence given above has two clauses because it has two finite verbs – warned and would be dismissed.
Upon closer examination it is easy to find that the clause ‘I warned him’ can stand by itself because it makes complete sense. A clause which makes complete sense and can stand by itself is called a main or principal clause. Now consider the clause ‘that he would be promoted’. It has a subject (he) and a predicate of its own (would be promoted), but it doesn’t make complete sense. It is therefore a subordinate clause.

Once you have found out the principal clause and the subordinate clause, you have to determine what function each clause serves in the sentence. Here the subordinate clause ‘that he would be promoted’ acts as the direct object of the verb ‘warned’.

We have seen that the object of a verb will always be a noun or its equivalent. And since the clause ‘that he would be promoted’ acts as the object of a verb it is a noun clause by nature.

More examples are given below:

Unless he apologizes he will be punished.

Principal clause: He will be punished
Subordinate clause: Unless he apologizes

Here the subordinate clause ‘unless he apologizes’ modifies the verb ‘punished’ by expressing a condition. It, therefore, serves as an adverb clause of condition.

When the siren sounded, all traffic came to a stop.

Principal clause: All traffic came to a stop
Subordinate clause: When the siren sounded

Here the subordinate clause ‘when the siren sounded’ modifies the verb came by saying when the action took place. It, therefore, serves as an adverb clause of time.

More examples are given below:
It was Commander Peary who discovered that Greenland itself was an island.

The sentence given above consists of three clauses because it has three finite verbs – was, discovered and was.

Principal clause: It was Commander Peary
First subordinate clause: who discovered
Second subordinate clause: that Greenland itself was an island

Here the subordinate clause ‘who discovered’ modifies the noun Commander Peary. It, therefore, serves as an adjective clause. The second subordinate clause ‘that Greenland itself was an island’ is the object of the verb ‘discovered’. It, therefore, serves as a noun clause.

Very

Very means ‘to a great degree’. It is commonly used with adjectives or adverbs in the positive degree.

He was very nice.
She is very intelligent.
It is very small.
He did it very well.
He drove very carefully.

Very can be used with a present participle used as an adjective.

It was a very amusing story.
It was very amusing.
I find the proposal very interesting.

When very is used with well, it shows agreement or assent.

Very well doctor, I will give up smoking.
Oh, very well, I will come if you want.

When used with a superlative adjective very means ‘in the highest degree’.

This tea is of the very best quality.
She is the very best singer I know.

When very is used with own, it means ‘absolutely’.

Very is often used before much.

Thank you very much.

Much

Much means to a great extent or degree. It is used with uncountable singular nouns.

I haven’t got much time.
She didn’t eat much breakfast.

Much can be used with an adjective or adverb in the comparative and superlative degree. It means more or less the same as very. But note that very is used with positive adjectives.

Compare:

She is very pretty. (No comparison implied)
He is very tall. (No comparison implied)
She is much prettier than her sister.
He is much taller than his wife.

Much can be used before a past participle in the passive form.

I was much shocked to hear the news.

Too

Too means ‘more than is required’. It has a negative meaning.

She is too fat.
He is too young to marry.
It is too late to start a new lesson.
The news is too good to be true.

Enough

Enough shows sufficiency. It has a positive meaning. Note that enough goes after the adjective or adverb it modifies.

He is rich enough to buy a car. (NOT He is enough rich to buy a car.)
She is old enough to be a grandmother. (NOT She is enough old to be a grandmother.)
I was foolish enough to trust her.

Note that enough is the opposite of too.

It is hot enough (= to the degree/extent required) to go swimming. (= We can go swimming.)
It is too hot (= more than required) to go swimming. (= We can’t go swimming.)

Yes and no

If the answer is ‘yes’, the following verb must be in the affirmative.

Is it any good? Yes, it is. (NOT Yes, it isn’t.)

If the answer is ‘no’, the following verb must be in the negative.

Is it very hot? No, it isn’t. (NOT No, it is.)

The basic rules are as follows:

Rule 1

If the verb in the principal clause is in the present or the future tense, the verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense, depending upon the sense to be expressed.

He says that he is fine.
He says that he was fine.
He says that he will be fine.
He will say that he is fine.
He will say that he was fine.
He will say that he will be fine.

Rule 2

If the tense in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tense in the subordinate clause will be in the corresponding past tense.

He said that he would come.
He told me that he had been ill.
I knew that he would not pass.
We noticed that the fan had stopped.

There are, nevertheless, a few exceptions to this rule.

A past tense in the main clause may be followed by a present tense in the subordinate clause when the subordinate clause expresses some universal truth.

Copernicus proved that the earth moves round the sun.
The teacher told us that honesty is the best policy.
He told me that the Hindus burn their dead.

A subordinate clause expressing place, reason or comparison may be in any tense, according to the sense to be expressed.

He didn’t get the job because his English isn’t good.
A fishing village once existed where now lies the city of Mumbai.

If the subordinate clause is an adjective clause, it may be in any tense as is required by the sense.

Yesterday I met a man who sells balloons.
Yesterday I met a man who sold me a balloon.

Rule 3

Note that when the subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction of purpose that, the following rules are observed.

We use may in the subordinate clause when the main clause is in the present tense. We use might in the subordinate clause when the main clause is in the past tense.

I study that I may pass.
I will study that I may pass.
I studied that I might pass.
We eat that we may live.
He ate that he might not die.

Rule 4

If the principal clause is in the future tense, we do not use future tense in subordinating clauses beginning with when, until, before, after etc.

I will call you when dinner is ready. (NOT I will call you when dinner will be ready.)
I shall wait until you return. (NOT I shall wait until you will return.)

Rule 5

Expressions such as as if, if only, it is time and wish that are usually followed by past tenses.

I wish I was a bit taller.
It is time we started working.
He talks as if he knew everything.

If
He asked if he could go. (Here the subordinate clause ‘if he could go’ is the object of the verb asked. It, therefore, serves as a noun clause.)

If you heat ice it melts. (Here the subordinate clause ‘if you heat ice’ expresses a condition. It, therefore, serves as an adverb clause of condition.)

Who

The man who killed our dog has been arrested. (Here the subordinate clause ‘who killed our dog’ modifies the noun man. It, therefore, serves as an adjective clause.)

I don’t know who he is. (Here the subordinate clause ‘who he is’ acts as the object of the verb know. It, therefore, serves as a noun clause.)

I met John who (= and he) told me the whole story. (Here who acts as a coordinating conjunction.)

That

The connective that serves several purposes. Study the use of that in the subordinate clauses given below.

We eat that we may live.
He worked hard that he might pass.

Here ‘that’ introduces the adverb clause showing purpose. Note that ‘that’ is followed by ‘may’ or ‘might’ in these clauses.

He was so weak that he could not walk.
The coffee was so hot that I could not drink it.
It was so hot that we didn’t go out.

Here ‘that’ introduces the adverb clause showing effect. Note that ‘that’ is preceded by ‘so’ in these clauses.

He is arrogant that he is powerful. (= He is arrogant because he is powerful. Here that introduces the adverb clause of reason.)

He made a promise that he would return soon. (Here the –that clause is used as a complement of the object promise.)

He said that he was going. (Here the –that clause is used as the object of the verb said.)

I remember the story that he told me. (Here the –that clause modifies the noun story. It is, therefore, used as an adjective clause.)

Other connectives which, why, who, as etc., are also used to introduce clauses of different kinds.

Adjective clauses may begin with when, where, why and how when these connectives are preceded by nouns showing time, place, reason and manner respectively.

This is the house where John lives. (Here where introduces the subordinate adjective clause modifying the noun house.)
The reason why she hates me is not known to me. (Here why introduces the subordinate adjective clause modifying the noun reason.)

Compare:

I don’t know when he will arrive. (Here the subordinate clause ‘when he will arrive’ is the object of the verb know. It, therefore, serves as a noun clause.)
Tell me the time when you intend to return. (Here the subordinate clause ‘when you intend to return’ modifies the noun time. It is therefore used as an adjective clause.)
When the cat is away the mice play. (Here the subordinate clause ‘when the cat is away’ acts as an adverb clause of time modifying the verb play.)

Notes

There are as many clauses in a sentence as there are finite verbs. Note that infinitives, participles and gerunds are not finite verbs.

For and because

For is a coordinating conjunction. It is used to introduce a coordinate clause. Because is a subordinating conjunction. It is used to introduce a subordinate clause.

He did not go out, for it was raining. (Here the coordinating conjunction for joins two main clauses ‘he did not go out’ and ‘it was raining’.)
He did not go out because it was raining. (Here the subordinating conjunction because joins the principal clause (he did not go out) with the subordinate clause (it was raining).)

Whether

In an indirect question whether introduces a noun clause.

I don’t know whether he would come. (Here the clause introduced by whether acts as the object of the verb know. It is therefore a noun clause.)

In conditional sentences whether introduces an adverb clause of condition. It is usually followed by or.

You are going to do that job whether you like it or not. (Here whether introduces the adverb clause of condition whether you like it or not.)

A sentence put inside inverted commas is always a noun clause.

Indirect questions introduced by if or whether are noun clauses.

He asked me whether I liked the idea. (Here the indirect question ‘whether I liked the question’ acts as the object of the verb asked.)

When, unless, if, till etc

After the conjunctions when, unless, if, till, whether…or, while and though, the predicate verb ‘to be’ is often understood and not expressed.

I broke my leg while getting down the ladder. (= I broke my leg while I was getting down the ladder.)

As the subject of a verb

The story was true. (Here the noun story serves as the subject of the verb was.)
What he said was true. (Here the clause ‘what he said’ serves as the subject of the verb was.)

As the object of a finite verb, participle or infinitive

He told me a story. (Here the noun story is the object of the verb told.)
He told me that he was going. (Here the noun clause ‘that he was going’ is the object of the verb told.)

As the object of a preposition

Pay attention to my story. (Here the noun story is the object of the preposition to.)
Pay attention to what I say. (Here the noun clause ‘what I say’ is the object of the preposition to.)

Subject complement

My brother is a doctor. (Here the noun doctor is the complement of the subject my brother.)
My belief is that he would pass. (Here the noun clause ‘that he would pass’ is the complement of the subject belief.)

In apposition to a noun or pronoun

Alice, my sister, lives abroad. (Here the noun my sister is in apposition to the noun Alice.)
The news that he won made us happy. (Here the noun clause ‘that he won’ is in apposition to the noun news.)

How to construct a sentence having a noun clause

Making a sentence having a noun clause is very simple. One of the ways is to begin a sentence like this:

He says that…

Whatever clause you put after ‘that’ will automatically become a noun clause.

He says that he is not interested in the offer. (Noun clause – that he is not interested in the offer.)

Instead of say you can use any of the following verbs:

Know, believe, think, realize, feel, hope, wish, understand, see, notice, find, discover, hear, listen, say, tell, ask, request, order, explain, suggest etc.

He suggested that I should consult a doctor. (Noun clause – that I should consult a doctor)
I think that he is a traitor. (Noun clause – that he is a traitor)
I discovered that he was cheating me. (Noun clause – that he was cheating me)
I heard that he had won the match. (Noun clause – that he had won the match)

Adverb clauses of condition are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions if, weather, unless, in case, as if, so long as etc.

If you heat ice, it melts.
In case you miss the train, give me a call.
If I had been rich, I would have lent him some money.
Unless you run fast, you will miss the train.

Adverb clauses of result of effect

Adverb clauses of result or effect are introduced by the subordinating conjunction that. Note that ‘that’ is usually preceded by so or such in the principal clause.

He is so weak that he cannot walk.
It was so hot that we didn’t go out.
He spoke in such a low voice that we couldn’t hear anything.

Adverb clauses of comparison

Adverb clauses of comparison are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions than, as or as if. Note that the verb of the adverb clause of comparison is usually understood and not mentioned.

She is taller than her husband (is).
It is better than I expected it to be.
Nobody knows him better than I (do).
I like him more than you (like him).
You may do as you please.

Adverb clauses of concession or contrast

Adverb clauses of concession or contrast are introduced by the subordinating conjunction though, although, as, even if, however, whatever etc.

Though he is poor, he is happy.
Although he is poor, he is happy.
Even if it rains, I shall come.

Exercise

Find out the adverb clauses in the following sentences.

1.    Unless you leave this place at once, I shall call the police.
2.    Before we hear the thunder, we see a flash of lightning.
3.    As he is one of our most celebrated poets, Shelly’s name should be remembered by all.
4.    We should always wash our hands and mouth before we eat our food.
5.    His remarks were so imprudent that we found it hard to keep quiet.

Answers

1.    Unless you leave this place at once (Adverb clause of condition)
2.    Before we hear the thunder (Adverb clause of time)
3.    As he is one of our most celebrated poets (Adverb clause of reason)
4.    Before we eat our food (Adverb clause of time)
5.    That we found it hard to keep quiet (Adverb clause of result or effect)

We must get the roof repaired now. (Here the adverb now modifies the verb get repaired.)
We must get the roof repaired before the rains set in. (Here the adverb clause ‘before the rains set in’ modifies the verb get repaired.)

Adverb clauses tell when, where, why, how, with what purpose or on what condition an action is done.

There are different kinds of adverb clauses:

Adverb clauses of time
Adverb clauses of place
Adverb clauses of purpose
Adverb clauses of condition
Adverb clauses of cause or reason
Adverb clauses of comparison

Adverb clauses of time
Adverb clauses of time tell when an action is done. They are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions when, as soon as, while, before, until, after, since, till, as long as etc.

Do not get off the train until it stops.
I will go abroad after I finish my studies.
I always switch the lights off before I step out of the room.

Adverb clauses of place
Adverb clauses of place state where an action takes place. They are usually introduced by the subordinating conjunctions where, wherever etc.

Put the keys where you can find them easily.
This is the house where my family lives.

Adverb clauses of purpose
Adverb clauses of purpose are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions that, lest, so that, in order that etc.

We eat so that we may live.
He ran fast lest he should miss the train.

Adverb clauses of cause or reason
Adverb clauses of cause or reason are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions as, since, because, that etc.

I like John because he is sincere.
As he was not feeling well, he left early.
I am sorry that I missed the concert. (= I am sorry because I missed the concert.)

He is a lazy boy. (Here the adjective lazy modifies the noun boy.)
He is a boy who is lazy. (Here the adjective clause ‘who is lazy’ modifies the noun boy.)
The missing boy has been found. (Here the participle missing is used as an adjective qualifying the noun boy.)
The boy who was missing has been found. (Here the adjective clause ‘who was missing’ modifies the noun boy.)

Adjective clauses usually begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that or what) or a relative adverb (when, where, why or how). An adjective clause is put immediately after the noun or pronoun which it qualifies.

Note that the relative pronoun or adverb introducing an adjective clause is sometimes omitted.

I could not answer the question (which) you asked. (Here the relative pronoun which can be omitted.)
I have read all the books (which) you gave me.
The plan (which) I proposed was accepted by all.
That is the reason (why) he does not want to come here.

An adjective clause may be introduced by as and but when they are used as relative pronouns.

This is the same book as I use. (Here the adjective clause is introduced by the relative pronoun as.)

In some cases, the main clause is broken into two parts to bring the adjective clause close to the noun/pronoun it modifies.

The man who collects the cash in a shop must be honest. (Main clause – the man must be honest; adjective clause – who collects the cash in a shop.)
The boy who was missing has been found. (Main clause – the boy has been found; adjective clause – who was missing)

Exercise

Find out the adjective clause in each of the following sentences and say which noun/pronoun it modifies.

1.    This is the same house that Tennyson occupied.
2.    Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown.
3.    This is the house where my family lives.
4.    He has a son who is certain to bring him credit.
5.    This is the same old story that we heard a long time ago.

Answers

1.    The adjective clause ‘that Tennyson occupied’ modifies the noun house.
2.    The adjective clause ‘that wears the crown’ modifies the noun head.
3.    The adjective clause ‘where my family lives’ modifies the noun house.
4.    The adjective clause ‘who is certain to bring him credit’ modifies the noun son.
5.    The adjective clause ‘that we heard a long time ago’ modifies the noun story.