Standard English is only acquired through formal education. Needless to say, only the well educated have a decent command over it.

Standard English has both spoken and written forms. Interestingly what may be normal in standard written English, needn’t necessarily be normal in standard spoken English.

British and American differences

Standard English does not have the same form around the globe. For example, in standard American English, the past participle form of got is gotten whereas in standard British English the past participle form of got is got itself. Similarly users of standard American English write color, meter and center, while British users write colour, metre and centre.

Like every other form of English, standard English, also changes over time. For example, some structures that were considered standard in early nineteenth century are no longer considered standard.

Is standard English better?

Not necessarily. It is important to note that standard English isn’t superior to any other variety of English. It is not more grammatical or more expressive. But, yes, the use of a single standard form which is acceptable around the globe minimizes uncertainty and confusion. What is more, the standard form of English enjoys greater social prestige than other forms; consequently acquiring a decent command over standard English is now essential in most careers.

Hyperbole means exaggeration. In a hyperbole things are described as being bigger or smaller than they really are.

We have been waiting for ages.
She wept oceans of tears.
All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. (Shakespeare)
When she smiled all the world was gay.
I thought ten thousand swords must have leapt from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult.

Figures based on indirect expression

Euphemism

By this figure of speech we express something unpleasant or blunt in a gentle and mild way. This device is employed to avoid giving offence. For example, it is common to say ‘passed away’ instead of ‘died’.

Examples are given below:

My grandfather passed away last week. (=My grandfather died last week.)
My sister has just had a visit from the stork. (= My sister has just had a baby.)
He is becoming thin on top. (=He is becoming bald.)
Food was collected for the disadvantaged in the city. (=Food was collected for the poor in the city.)
She is becoming overweight. (= She is becoming fat.)

Irony

Irony involves saying one thing when we mean just the opposite. A classic example is given below. Here Anthony is stirring up the Romans against Brutus and Cassius at the funeral of Caesar.

Here under leave of Brutus and the rest
(For Brutus is a honourable man:
So are they all, all honourable men)
Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me;
But Brutus says he was ambitious,
And Brutus is a honourable man.

Figures based on sound

Onomatopoeia

This figure of speech involves the use of a word that is formed from the sound it is intended to represent. Examples are thud, boom, puff-puff and bow-vow. Note that this figure is more common in poetry than in prose.

Examples are:

The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves
It cracked and growled and roared and howled like noises in a sound.

Alliteration

Alliteration involves the repetition of one or more similar sounds or letters at the beginning of two or more words. Examples are given below:

How high his highness holds his haughty head.
Till the vessel shook with a shivering shock
A strong man struggling with the storms of fate (Addison)

The word metonymy means ‘substitution of name’. An object may have several attributes. Metonymy involves the substitution of one of these attributes for the name of the object itself. For instance, we make use of metonymy when we use ‘crown’ for monarch or monarchy. Other examples are given below:

The bench for the judge
The pen for writing
The press for newspapers
The sword for the soldier

Study the example sentences given below:

The crown (= the king/monarch) has lost much of its power.
The kettle is boiling. (It is not the kettle but the water in it that is boiling.)
Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice.
The pen is mightier than the sword.
Please address the chair (= the chairman).

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is similar to metonymy. It means ‘the understanding of one thing by another’. Read the examples given below:
We make use of Synecdoche when we say ‘He is the Newton of our time’ instead of ‘He is the greatest scientist of our time’.

More examples are given below.
There is a mixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of a Frenchman. (Voltaire)
A fleet of forty sails (= ships).

Transferred Epithet

In a transferred epithet a qualifying adjective is transferred from one word to another to which it does not strictly belong. For example, we use a transferred epithet when we say ‘John spent a happy day’. Here we do not mean that the day was happy; it was John who was happy.
Here the adjective happy actually refers to John, but we use it with day.

More examples are given below:

It is a sad world. (It is not the world that is sad, but the people living in it.)
The convict was thrown into the condemned cell. (It is not the cell that is condemned, but its inmates.)
He received a mortal wound.

Here one idea or word is set against another for the sake of emphasis.

God made the country, and man made the town.
United we stand; divided we fall.
Prosperity gains friends; adversity tries them.
Be thou familiar; but by no means vulgar.

Epigram

An epigram is a short pithy saying in prose or verse. Epigrams are remarkable for brevity. At first reading, an epigram appears to involve contradiction, but on closer examination it seems to embody a shrewd idea.

Examples are given below:

Conspicuous by his absence
Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. (Pope)
He who can does; he who cannot, teaches. (Shaw)
A man who sees both sides of a question sees nothing at all.

Pun

Pun involves a deliberate play on the various meanings of a word. A pun is employed to achieve the effects of humor, admiration or surprise.

Examples are given below:

An ambassador is a person who lies abroad for the good of his country. (Here the pun is on the word lies.)
‘Yes, the leopard changes it spots, whenever it goes from one spot to another. (Here the pun is on the word spot.)
They went and told the Sexton and the Sexton tolled the bell. (Here the pun is on the words told and tolled which have the same pronunciation, but different meaning.)
I saw a saw that could not saw. (Here the pun is employed on the different meanings of the word saw.)
A teacher trains the mind; a guard minds the train.

Figures of speech based on construction

Climax
Climax is a Greek word meaning a ladder. In a climax, the sense rises step by step and becomes more and more impressive.
Read the example given below:
It is useless to continue this struggle; not only useless but also dangerous; not only dangerous, but also criminal.

Anticlimax or pathos
Anticlimax is the opposite of climax. It shows a ludicrous descent from the higher to the lower. Anticlimax or pathos is employed to create a humorous effect.
The soldier fights for glory and a shilling a day.
At one fell swoop, he lost his wife, his children, his houses and his dog.
‘Here, thou great Anna! Whom three realms obey
Dost sometimes counsel take – and sometimes tea.’ (Pope)

An allegory is a long story with a moral. In an allegory characters are moral qualities or abstract ideas personified and the incidents have a spiritual meaning.

Notable examples of allegory are: Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress and Spenser’s Fairy Queen

Personification

Personification is a special kind of metaphor. In personification, inanimate objects and abstract ideas are spoken of as if they were persons or human beings. For example, in the personification ‘The moon veiled her face’, we personify the moon; that is we speak of it as if it were a human being capable of acting.

Examples are given below:

So I stared at the night and she stared back solemnly at me. (Here we personify the night.)
Opportunity knocks at the door but once. (Here we personify the abstract idea opportunity.)
‘The moon doth with delight.
Look round her when the heavens are bare.’

Apostrophe

An apostrophe is a form of personification. In an apostrophe, the writer addresses some inanimate thing or an absent person as if it were present.
Examples are given below:

‘O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy victory?’
‘O solitude, where are thy charms,
That sages have seen in thy face?’
Fare daffodils! We weep to see you haste away so soon.

Figures of speech based on contrast or difference

Oxymoron

The figure of speech Oxymoron refers to a phrase which appears to be contradictory in nature. Examples are: bitter sweet, ostentatious simplicity, cruel kindness etc.

Note how oxymoron is used to effect in the following examples:

King James was the wisest fool in Christendom.
Life is bitter sweet.
His honor rooted in dishonor stood.
And faith unfaithfully kept him falsely true.

Figures of speech based on resemblance

Simile

The word simile is derived from the Latin word similis which means ‘likeness’. A simile is a definite expression of likeness between two different objects or events. A simile has essentially two elements:

1.    The two events or objects compared
2.    An expression of likeness

Note that the two objects or events compared must be different in kind.
A simile is usually introduced by words such as like, as and as…so.

Examples are given below.

King Richard was as brave as a lion. (Here King Richard is compared with a lion.)
She sat like patience on a monument. (Shakespeare)
‘Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart’ (Wordsworth)
He roared like a lion.

Given below are examples of similes common in everyday speech.

Adjectives: as cool as a cucumber; as sober as a judge; as wise as Solomon; as cunning as a fox

Verbs: fit like a glove; fight like a demon; run like a deer; cry like a child; sing like a lark

Proper use of similes adds style to your writing. But try not to use too many similes in your writing. Before you use a simile ask yourself whether it would add force or clarity to a description or statement.

Metaphor

A metaphor is an implied simile. In a simile two different objects are compared with words such as like or as. In a metaphor we state that one thing is the same as the other.

Examples are given below:

Life is a dream. (He we are not comparing life with dream. Instead we state that life is the same as dream.)
Variety is the spice of life.
He is a mere cog in the wheel.

Common metaphors are given below:

A gleam of delight
Chicken-hearted fellow
A mere shadow of one’s former self
Give the cold shoulder
Play the fool
Fan the flames

Note that everyday speech is highly metaphorical, but we seldom notice the metaphors because of their constant use.

Run-on sentences are actually two separate sentences that have been joined with a comma instead of a colon, a full stop or a joining word.

Consider the sentence given below:

The camel is an ungainly animal, it has a hump on its back.

This sentence could be rewritten as:

The camel is an ungainly animal; it has a hump on its back.
The camel is an ungainly animal. It has a hump on its back.
The camel is an ungainly animal which has a hump on its back.
The camel is an ungainly animal in that it has a hump on its back.

Correct the run-on sentence given below in four ways.

Magellan was a great navigator, he proved the world was round.

This sentence should be rewritten as:

Magellan was a great navigator. He proved the world was round.
Magellan was a great navigator; he proved the world was round.
Magellan was a great navigator who proved the world was round.
Magellan was a great navigator in that he proved the world was round.

Do not change person when using pronouns

Pronouns belong to three groups:

First person (I, we)
Second person (you)
Third person (He, she, they, it, one, anyone, everyone etc.)

When writing you can use pronouns from each of the three groups, but note that it is wrong to change from one group to another.

Consider the sentence given below:

If you want to be a good singer, one must practice.

This sentence must be rewritten as:

If you want to be a good singer, you must practice.

Another example is given below:

I enjoy walking in the rains, because you feel refreshed afterwards.

This sentence should be written as:

I enjoy walking in the rains because I feel refreshed afterwards.

Use parallel structures

Your writing will become clearer and better if you use structures parallel in construction.

Compare the sentences given below:

Alice likes reading, singing and to paint. (Not parallel)
Alice likes reading, singing and painting. (parallel)

Exercise

Rewrite the following sentences so that the construction would be parallel.

1.    I cleaned the floor, swept the yard and then I cleaned the dishes.

2.    Although I trained hard, practiced everyday and I listened to my teachers, I never passed the entrance examination.

Answers

1.    I cleaned the floor, swept the yard and then cleaned the dishes.
2.    Although I trained hard, practiced everyday and listened to my teachers, I never passed the entrance examination.

One or more words can be omitted when they are already clearly implied.

John had finished his studies and gone to play football with his friends. (Better than ‘John had finished his studies and had gone to play football with his friends.)
Alice has written the letter and posted it. (Better than ‘Alice has written the letter and has posted it’.)

Note that words can be omitted only when the subjects are of the same number and person. Omitting words can cause error to occur when the verbs have different subjects or when the subjects are of different number or person.

For example, read the sentence given below:

The floor has been cleaned and the clothes have been washed. (Here the clauses ‘the floor has been cleaned’ and ‘the clothes have been washed’ have different subjects. The subjects floor and clothes are also of different number. It is, therefore, wrong to write ‘The floor has been cleaned and clothes washed’.)

Compare:

I have groomed the dogs and washed the kennel. (Here both clauses have the same subject, I. It is, therefore, possible to omit the word have.)
The dogs have been groomed and the kennel has been washed. (NOT The dogs have been groomed and kennel washed.)

Here the clauses ‘the dogs have been groomed’ and ‘the kennel has been washed’ have different subjects. The subjects dogs and kennel are also of different number.

Use active voice whenever possible

Active verbs are more effective than passive verbs. Therefore, use active voice whenever possible.

Compare: Your help will be appreciated by us. (Passive)
We will appreciate your help. (Active)

Exercise

Rewrite the following sentences, making the verbs active.

A house is being built on the plot.
The news of her death was received by us with sadness.
A very high standard was set by the athletes.
The story was written by a friend of mine.

Answers

They are building a house on the plot.
We received the news of her death with sadness.
The athletes set a very high standard.
A friend of mine wrote the story.

Note that while active sentences are more effective and better than passive sentences, the latter is preferred in cases where the object is to be emphasized.

You can put special emphasis on a word in a number of ways. For instance, try placing it first.

Though he is poor, he is happy.
Poor though he is, he is happy. (Here the emphasis is on the word ‘poor’.)

Rewrite the sentences given below placing the underlined word first. Read your sentences aloud, and notice how the meaning changes.

The birds flew up.
Though he was hurt, he didn’t stop playing.
The guns boomed out relentlessly.
I would like only his old photograph for myself.

Answers

Up flew the birds. (Here the emphasis is on the word up.)
Hurt though he was, he didn’t stop playing. (Here the emphasis is on the word ‘hurt’.)
Relentlessly the guns boomed out. (Here the emphasis is on the words ‘relentlessly’.)
For myself, I would like only his old his old photograph.

Repeating words is another method. Note that by repeating a particular word, we put extra emphasis on it. Be careful, however, not to do this too often.

Help! Help! Screamed the woman.
Electronic appliances are getting cheaper and cheaper.
Nearer and nearer came the figure dressed in black.
Up, up flew the birds.
Down, down sank the wrecked ship.

Begin with a phrase or an adverb

You can vary and improve your sentences, by beginning them with a phrase or an adverb.

I visited Cairns during the winter.
During the winter, I visited Cairns. (Here we begin the sentence with the adverb phrase ‘during the winter’.)
The poor little boy looked hungrily at the cake.
Hungrily the poor little boy looked at the cake. (Here we begin the sentence with the adverb ‘hungrily’.)
We saw a flashing light in the sentence.
In the distance, we saw a flashing light.
She tore up the letter angrily.
Angrily she tore up the letter.

When you begin a sentence with an adverb phrase, use a comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence.