Descriptive

In a descriptive paragraph you describe a scene or a thing or a person. The aim is to give a vivid picture of the object. Only the significant details should be given in a descriptive paragraph.

Narrative

In a narrative paragraph you narrate an incident. The ideas are presented in a coherent manner. Your account must be clear and cogent, and, when the occasion demands it, dramatic and full of suspense.

A paragraph of definition

In a paragraph of definition you define a person or an object. When you define things use precise words and expressions. Be objective, scientific and dispassionate in defining things.

A paragraph of similarities

When you compare two things you have to bring out the similarities between them in a convincing manner. Sometimes you will need to use a simile or a metaphor.

A paragraph of differences

When you contrast two things, the differences have to be expressed in an explicit manner. Use linking words like but, whereas, on the other hand, on the contrary etc.

Statement of facts and figures

There are paragraphs which do not belong to any of the above categories and are mainly concerned with giving facts and figures in a clear and emphatic manner.

Italicize the following:

The titles of books, plays, collection of poems, magazines, and newspapers:

War and Peace
Pride and Prejudice
Animal Planet
Times of India

The titles of movies and radio and television programs:

Finding Nemo
Gone with the Wind
Who will Become the Millionaire?

The titles of paintings, sculptures, and major musical compositions:

Mona Lisa (painting)
David (sculpture)
Swan Lake (ballet)
Porgy and Bess (opera)

Words, letters, and numbers used as such:

How do you spell fix?
The e looked like c.
The letter i in business is not pronounced.

Foreign words and phrases should be set in italics if their meanings are likely to be unknown to the reader.

Peter’s Weltanschauung was gloomy.

Words and phrases that are being emphasized:

Paris was the place to be in the ’20s.

The names of ships, aircraft, and space vehicles:

Skylab
The Spirit of St. Louis
space shuttle Discovery

Italicized letters are also used to show the word or words that would be stressed if spoken.

Stop the car – I feel sick.

A few jobs and positions have different words for men and women.

Examples are given below:

Man / Woman

Actor / actress
bride groom / bride
duke / duchess
hero / heroine
host / hostess
poet / poetess
monk / nun
prince / princess
waiter / waitress
widower / widow

Notes

A mayor can be a man or a woman. Similarly, a doctor can be a man or a woman. In British English, a mayoress is the wife of a male mayor. Similarly, a governess is the wife of a male governor.

The words authoress and poetess are now seldom used. Instead we use the words author and poet for both men and women.

Words ending in -man

Many words ending in -man (e.g. chairman, postman, watchman, fireman etc) do not have a common feminine equivalent. Since many women do not like being called a chairman or spokesman, these words are now often avoided in reference to women. In many cases we use -person instead of -man.

Susie has been elected chairperson of our society.
The spokesperson declined to comment.

Note that words like spokeswoman are also becoming more common. Another trend is to use words which are not gender-marked.

Examples are:

Firefighter instead of fireman
Flight attendant instead of steward or stewardess

Titles

Ms is often used instead of Mrs or Miss. Like Mr, the title Ms can be used for both married and unmarried women.

In English we usually use it to refer to animals and things. However, sometimes we call animals he or she. This practice is common when animals are thought of as having personality.

My grandfather had a dog called Tom. He was very … (More natural than ‘It was very …)

He is sometimes used in cases where the sex of the animal is not known.

Look at the little monkey. Isn’t he cute?

Some people use she for cars, motorbikes, ships, boats etc.

The ship has struck an iceberg. She is sinking. OR It is sinking. (NOT He is sinking.)

In modern English, we usually use it for countries. She is also sometimes used.

India is keen on improving its relations with China. OR India is keen on improving her relations with China.

He or she?

English has traditionally used he in cases where the sex of a person is not known. He is also used in references that can apply to either men or women.

If I ever find the person who did this, I will kill him. (NOT …I will kill her.)

This usage is now regarded as sexist and many people try to avoid it. Instead, they use the expression ‘he or she’.

If a student is ill he or she is required to submit a medical certificate.OR If a student is ill he is required to submit a medical certificate.

They instead of he or she

In an informal style, we often use they instead of ‘he or she’. They is commonly used to refer back to indefinite words like somebody, anybody, nobody, person etc.

‘There is somebody at the door.’ ‘Tell them I am out.’
If anybody comes ask them to wait.
God send everyone their heart’s desire. (Shakespeare)

We say simple fractions like this:

1/8 = one eighth

5/7 = five sevenths
2/5 = two fifths
3/4 hour = three quarters of an hour

More complex fractions are usually expressed by using the word over.
218/576 = two hundred and eighteen over five hundred and seventy six

We say and write decimals like this:

0.278 = nought point two seven eight (US zero point two seven eight)
(NOT nought point two hundred and seventy eight)

Nought, zero, nil etc

The figure 0 is usually called nought in British English, and zero in American English. When we say numbers one figure at a time, 0 is often called oh.

My phone number is nine three two five oh six (= 932506)

In measurements of temperature , 0 is called zero in both British and American English.

Zero scores in team games are called nil. In tennis and similar games, the word love is used for zero.

And the score is: Brazil three, Italy nil.
Forty-love: Nadal to serve

Telephone numbers

Each figure is said separately. There is usually a pause after groups of three or four figures. If the same figure comes twice, British people usually say double.

657 4481 – six five seven, double four eight one (British)
- six five seven, four four eight one (US)

Roman numbers
The names of kings and queens are still written in Roman numbers.

It was built in the time of Louis XIV.
Queen Elizabeth II
Henry V

Cardinal and ordinal number

The numbers one, two, three, four etc., are called cardinal numbers whereas the numbers first, second, third, fourth etc., are called ordinal numbers. Ordinal numbers are used before nouns. After a noun, we use cardinal numbers.

the fourth chapter – chapter four
the third act – Act Three

Method

Carefully read the original sentence or paragraph until you fully understand its meaning.

Once you have understood the meaning of the passage, expand it by adding details, illustrations, examples etc.

The expanded passage must contain all that was in the original passage. You may also add details that are strictly relevant to the subject.

If the sentence for expansion is a metaphor, explain its meaning in plain language and give reasons to support it.

If the sentence for expansion is a conclusion, it is your job to trace the steps by which this thought has been arrived at.

The expanded passage should be a complete piece of composition. It must be written in good English.

Carefully look for spelling, grammar and punctuation errors.

Autobiography writing tips

Write in the first person. We have seen that an autobiography is the story of a person’s life written by that person. So it should be written in the first person.

Use simple language. Make the story as interesting as possible. However, in a bid to write an interesting autobiography you shouldn’t deviate from the truth.

If you are writing the autobiography of an animal or an inanimate object, you should try to put yourself in the position of the animal or object you are writing about and imagine the things it would see, say or think if it were alive.

Do not make the animal or object say things that are illogical or impossible. For example do not talk about the death of the animal. How can an animal write about its death? In short, the animals or objects should hear and say things which are natural and possible.

26 May 1979

30 October 2003

Note that the names of months always begin with capital letters.

Some people put a comma before the year. This is particularly common when the date comes inside a sentence.

18 October, 2003

29 January, 2008

My son was born on 18 October, 2003.

Another common practice is to add the last two letters of the number word to the day.

18th November, 2009 (OR 18 October, 2009)

4th October, 2005 (OR 4 October, 2005)

Sometimes dates are written entirely in numbers. Several formats are possible.

26/3/2001

26-3-2001

26.3.2001

Note that dates are written differently in American English. Americans write the month first and put a comma before the year.

March 30, 2003

April 1, 2004

All-figure dates are interpreted differently in British and American English. This is because British people put the day first. Americans, on the other hand, start with the month.

Compare:

6.4.2004 means 6 April 2004 in Britain whereas it means June 4 2004 in America.

Months with longer names are usually abbreviated in writing.

Jan  = January

Feb  = February

Mar = March

Apr = April

Aug = August

Sept = September

Oct = October

Nov = November

Dec = December

Decades

The names of decades are usually written like this:

the nineteen sixties = the 1960s

the nineteen twenties = the 1920s

Speaking about dates

To talk about the date, we use it’s.

It’s April the first.

To ask about dates, we usually use one of the following structures:

What’s the date today?

What date is your wedding anniversary?

What date is your birthday?

BC and AD

The abbreviation BC stands for Before Christ. The abbreviation AD stands for Anno Domini – Latin for ‘in the year of the Lord’. Note that in writing BD follows the date. AD can come before or after the date.

55 BC

AD 53 or 53 AD

Noun/pronoun etc + auxiliary verb

He’s coming. (= He is coming.)
I’m tired. (= I am tired.)
I’ve no idea what he is going to do. (= I have no idea what he is going to do.)
My father’s not very well. (= My father is not very well.)
There’s a problem. (= There is a problem.)

Auxiliary verb + not

They aren’t ready. (= They are not ready.)
He won’t come. (= He will not come.)
I haven’t seen him in years. (= I have not seen him in years.)

Contractions are formed with auxiliary verbs. The short form ’s (= is/has) can be written after nouns, questions words, here and now.

Here’s our bus.
My mother’s coming with us.
Where’s John?

The short forms ’ll, ’d and ’re are common after pronouns and unstressed there. In other cases we usually write the full forms.

Note that contractions are not usually written with double subjects.

Alice and I have decided to start a business.  (NOT Alice and I’ve decided to start a business.)

Contractions are common and correct in informal writing. We do not normally use them in formal writing.

List of some common contractions

I’m = I am
I’ve = I have
I’ll = I will
I’d = I would/had

You’re = You are
You’ve = You have
You’ll = You will
You’d = You would/had

He’s = He is/has
He’ll = He will
He’d = He would/had

She’s = She is/has
She’ll = She will
She’d = She would/had

It’s = It is/has
They’re = They are
There’ve = There have

We’ve = We have

We’re = We are

Aren’t = Are not
Isn’t = Is not
Doesn’t = Does not
Didn’t = Did not
Won’t = Will not
Can’t = Cannot
Hasn’t = Has not
Haven’t = Have not
Needn’t = Need not

The beginning of a paragraph should mark a change in topic, or a step in the development of a plot. Learning to know how to divide an essay into neat paragraphs is an essential skill an ESL student should master. Unless divided into paragraphs, your essay would look uninteresting to the reader.

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a single point. Note that paragraphs are not mere arbitrary division of text. Each paragraph should deal with a central topic or develop a single idea.

The length of a paragraph

There is no rule as to what the length of a paragraph should be. A paragraph may be long or short. It may consist of a single sentence or a number of sentences. Note that the paragraphs of a piece of prose are different from the stanzas of a poem. While the stanzas of a poem are usually of the same length and pattern, paragraphs may be long or short.

Unity of thought

Discuss only one topic in each paragraph. Every sentence in the paragraph must be closely connected with the central idea of the paragraph. As far as possible, try to express the topic or subject of the paragraph in the first sentence itself. Narrate events in the order of their occurrence. Also make sure that every sentence is connected with the leading idea and arranged in the order of their importance.

The two most important sentences in a paragraph are the first and the last. The first sentence should arouse the interest of the reader and the last sentence should satisfy it.

Variety

To avoid monotony and to make the text look interesting, the paragraphs should be of different lengths. They must also not be of the same grammatical construction.